8 The Iconostasis

The Iconostasis (ICON - STAND) represents one of the most important architectural features off Orthodox Churches[1]. It is a ragid screen of wood or marble, composed of icons of the Lord, His angels and His saints. It lies between the Sanctuary, where the Lord is permanently present, and the nave of the church where worshippers assemble seeking the divine life.

EARLY ICONOSTASIS.

Original forms of the various Iconostases were found very early in the Christian Churches. We find mention of such screens in the writings of the Early Fathers as ST. Gregory the Theologian and ST. Chrysostom, and the writings of some historians like Eusebius.

The form and height of these screens varied. They were made of particular materials and decorated with sculpture and paintings. On the inner side, that is, on the side of the Sanctuary a curtain was fitted which was drawn open or closed in accordance with the various stages of the church service. In this fashion the Sanctuary screen made the Sanctuary visible and inaccessible at the same time[2].

It is noteworthy that in some ancient Coptic Churches , in particular the Church in the Monastery of ST. Makarius the Great which dates back to the seventh century , Sanctuary doors are quiet large and forming an arch reaching almost the ceiling. As if early Copts were stressing that nothing separates the people from the Holy of holies or prevents them from participating in the Consecration.

NORMCULTURE.

Several terms were introduced to refer to early Iconostasis or Sanctuary Screens:

1. ΚιγΚλις, i. e. grating, a term that suggests one of the early Iconostasis shapes. A typical example of it was mentioned by Eusebius when he talked about the wooden grating of the great church of Tyre "wrought with so delicate an art as a wonder to behold.".
2. ςιασΤγλα i. e. a barrier made of columns. This took the form of either a row of columns with architraves, or fitted with wooden or marble panels between the columns. Upon them Icons were painted and verses from the Holy Scriptures were engraved or painted.
3. ςρύφακΊα, i. e. a fence. Sometimes is called a veil; an h Inaccurate terminology, for the Christian Church never accepts a veil similar - in concept - to that of the Temple of Solomon. It has been knocked down forever when the Lord fulfilled the reconciliation between God and man through the Cross.
4. Tempalom (templem) or Temple. This term was introduced following the construction of the silver screen in the church of” Agia Sophia” by Justinian. It was decorated with icons of the Lord Jesus Christ, His angels and prophets, and upon its main door a cross was surmounted. It either looked like the front of old temples or they aimed to express the Christian idea of the shrine where God is worshipped...

FUNCTION OF THE ICONOSTASIS.

Two different attitudes are given to the evolvement of Iconostasis, or its equivalent in the Western Church "The Altar Screen.".

FIRST: THE WESTERN INTERPRETATION.

1. F. Bond[3] gives a practical reasoning for the appearance of this screen in Western Churches: "Where there was an aisled quire, screens were necessary to shelter the clergy or monks during the long offices from draughts in unheated churches, as also to prevent the distraction which the movements of worshippers in the aisles and ambulatory chapels might cause to those in the quire.".

On the other hand, Fr. Dix[4] offers another theory to the question in hand. He reckons that it came to use, at first, in North Syria towards the end of the fourth century, and was soon spread widely in both Eastern and Western Churches. Later it was utilized in the Byzantine Church as an icon - stand: an item of liturgical function and an essential entity in the rite of the Christian worship.

In his opinion, the original form of the screen was a solid veil aiming to prevent the layman from watching the consecration and this ties up with the attitudes of the Syrian Church of that time, which can be summarized as follows:

1. The writings of some of the Eastern Fathers, such as ST. John Chrysostom and ST. Cyril of Jerusalem clearly indicate the character of fear, reverence and mystery that was followed with regards to the subject of Eucharist. In turn, according to Dix, the Iconostasis came as a result of such a character.

1. The service of the Eucharistic liturgy began to be restricted to the clergy alone. Laymen were confined just to "hear and watch" the liturgy. On this account, secret prayers were introduced for the clergy’s use without the participation of the Congregation.

Alongside these lines, Fr. Dix concludes that the screen came into use so as to separate the clergy from the laity.

SECOND: THE EASTERN INTERPRETATION.

1. The Iconostasis was introduced as a sign of the reverence towards the mystery of the Altar, or the mystery of Christ the Victim, but surely that was not the prime cause of it.

The Orthodox Church does not underestimate the tremendous reverence associated with the liturgy of Eucharist, but on the other hand it must be in a biblical spirit, i. e. without isolation from the concept of love. In other words the Holy Scriptures combine fear and reverence, with love, for God says; "if I am indeed Father, where i. e. my honor? If I am indeed Mae ter, where i. e. my reaped?.

This is further confirmed in the writings of ST. Paul, for although He had a great dare towards God, acknowledged many divine mysteries and saw unspeakable things, he described God saying, "Who only has immortality, dwelling in the light which no man can approach unto, whom no man has seen, nor can see." 1 Tim 6: 16.

Moreover, such reverence towards the Sacrifice in the Orthodox Concept does not suggest a passive role of the laymen in the liturgical service. On the contrary, the Orthodox liturgy is believed to be the outcome of the combined action of both the clergy and laymen. Through the service, the deacon asks the congregation to take their part in the liturgy by praying for the sick, the travelers, the dead, the repentant, for those who offer the oblations etc.... He also asks them to pray for the Pope, bishops, priests, deacons, monks, nuns etc...

In brief, the congregation play a positive role in the ecclesiastical service by offering prayers, petitions, thanksgiving and hymns.

Lastly, we wish to furnish that secret prayers were never added due to the frightful nature of the Sacrifice, nor to discriminate laymen from the service of liturgy, but rather to provide the opportunity for both clergy and congregation to pray secretly, each one on his behalf and for the others with a humble heart.

1. Perhaps the most valid motive for the introduction of Iconostasis came as a defense against Iconoclastic Movement[5]. It expressed the Church’s wish to confirm our relation with the heavenly creatures and the saints, in Jesus Christ.

SYMBOLISM OF THE ICONOSTASIS.

1. The Iconostasis, being a part of the church building reveals the reality of the Church as an icon of the heavenly Jerusalem. An image of the future transfiguration of man and the regeneration of the world, where ’'God fills all in all, "Eph 1: 23.

No doubt, the icons of the Lord, His mother, Heavenly creatures, prophets, apostles, martyrs and righteous people fitted upon the Iconostasis provide a heavenly atmosphere for worshippers. ST. John Chrysostom says,[6].

"Man as if he were transferred to heaven Itself he stands near the throne of Glory. He flies with the Seraphim…".

1. The various icons hanging on the Iconostasis declare to a great extent the reconciliation between the two worlds, the heavenly and the earthly, establishing that all previous separation has been overcome through the Cross! A quick glance at it is sufficient to express that the human beings are counted with the heavenly ones. They participate in their life and share in their worship. ST. Ambrose says[7]:

"As our hearts are taken up to heaven, we sing with the angels this hymn...".

1. The Iconostasis also acts in favor of the church doctrine that our fathers and brothers who departed in the Lord are not far away from us. The death of their bodies never separated them from the church nor destroyed the bond of love towards the salvation of mankind.

On this basis, we can say that the Iconostasis is a symbol for reserving the first portion of the nave to the saints who are, in fact, one with their militant brothers.

THE COPTIC ICNOSTASIS

No doubt, that inspite of the successive waves of burning and demolition which the Coptic Church had suffered at the various stages, it is still rich with ancient Iconostases. Typical examples are found in the churches of old Cairo, in particular the churches of Abu - Serga and ST. Mary, whose Iconostases are remarkably beautiful, carved and inlaid with abony, ivory and cedar wood, and carry a large number of Icons and Symbols....

THE DOORS.

The Coptic Iconostasis, which was apparently Influenced by the Byzantine version contains three doors; the Royal door as the principal Sanctuary, and two other doors for the side sanctuaries.

It is almost certain that Royal doors existed since the early generations of Sanctuary Screens. They were called "Royal or Holy doors" because at them oblations are offered, where the priest selects the "Lamb" ; the bread that is sanctified and changed into the Body of the Lord, King of Kings and the Holy One!

Its opening during the Liturgy, resembles the exposure of heaven so that we may catch a glimpse of its splendor'.

As the Iconostasis declare the reconciliation between God and man, and the unity between heaven and earth, the three doors refer to the function of the Holy Trinity in realizing such reconciliation and attaining such unity.

The design and use of these doors, in the Coptic Church, is guided by a number of traditions, mainly:

1. As we have pointed out before, only the clergy are allowed to enter through the Sanctuary doors and only at restricted times of the service. This practice symbolizes the entrance of the whole church to the Kingdom of God through Jesus Christ, the Chief Priest.

In some cases the main Iconostasis Is erected on a different level from the side Iconostases as in the churches of Abu - Serga and Harett Zewella. This arrangement allows access to the main Sanctuary via two side doors (sec the diagram). They are used in the rite of procession during the feasts, and through them the deacons enter to the Sanctuary ground.

1. Upon entering the Sanctuary, the priest must face the Altar and step through the right hand side of the door using his right leg and bowing his head... as if stepping Into the Kingdom of heaven, for he is a child of God who stands at God’s right hand (Mt. 25).

A similar protocol is observed upon stepping out of the Sanctuary. This time he leaves by the left side of the door, in reverence, keeping his eyes fixed on the Altar... as if confirming that his inner eyes are focused on God's Altar or the throne of God!

1. The keys of these doors are kept with the archdeacon.
2. The doors are usually decorated with icons and carvings, In addition to verses from the Holy Scriptures as:

"Be lifted up, O ancient doors! that the King of Glory may come in." Ps. 23: 9.

"Praise the Lord, O Jerusalem! Praise you God! O Zion!

’’ Praise the Lord, O Jerusalem! Praise you God! O Zion! For He strengthens the bars of your gates. He blesses your sons within you. "Ps. 147: 12, 13.

"Open to me the gates of righteousness, that I may enter through them and give thanks to the Lord. This is the gate of the Lord; the righteous shall enter through it." Ps. 118: 19,20.

Occasionally the following words are Inscribed on the top of the Royal door "Hall to the Sanctuary of God the Father.".

Here we wish to point out that folding doors were known in Coptic Iconostasis, as in the church of ST. Mary at the Syrian Monastery (Wadi El - Natroun) and at the Monastery of Anba Bishoy. They serve as a rigid screen that completely veils the Sanctuary when they are closed, and fully expose it when they are opened.

THE WINDOWS.

On each side of the Coptic Sanctuary doors there existed a small window, cut about one and a half meters above the floor. These were originally used during the persecution periods, where two deacons watched the church through them. In the case of an attack, they notify the priest, who in turn hide the sacrifice, quenched the candles and tear away the altar clothing.

As a supplementary function, communion was sometimes given through these windows since the Holy Elements must not be taken outside the Sanctuary, and laity were not permitted in it. However. the rite of communion was usually conducted through two side windows specially cut for that purpose on the side walls of the Sanctuary.

POSITIONING AND ORDER OF ICONS.

The positioning of the various icons upon the Iconostasis is traditionally governed by a number of guide lines:

+ On the right side of the Royal door, the icon of our Lord Jesus Christ is fitted. He appears holding a sheet of the Gospel 234 showing the verse ” I am the Good Shepherd ". This icon reminds us that Jesus Christ is the unique gate leading to the heavenly kingdom. He is the Good Shepherd who opened the gates of heaven through His life - giving sacrifice.

Next to this icon appears the icon of ST. John the Baptist, the angel who prepared the way for the Lord's coming.

Next, comes the icon of the "Patron Saint" or the "Icon of the Church" , for it portrays the Saint of whose honor the Church was built. It is usually followed by a number of selected icons of Saints and Martyrs, or incidents from both the New and Old Testaments.

On the opposite side of the Royal Door appears the icon of ST. Mary, the Mother of God (THEOTOKOS). She represents the whole church and the Queen who sits on the right hand of the King; Jesus Christ.

This icon is followed by the icons of the Annunciation, Archangel Michael, ST. Mark the Evangelist and perhaps a selection of famous Apostles.

+ Directly above the Royal Door the icon of the last supper is mounted. It shows Christ giving communion to His disciples, which illustrates and signifies the sacerdotal office of Christ as a priest.

On both sides of the above icon we usually find icons of the twelve disciples. They assure us of the apostolic nature of our church. It is established on the apostolic faith, and continues to exist in an apostolic way, and is shepherd by apostolic pastors.

+ On the top of the Iconostasis a cross is mounted and a view of the Golgotha is displayed: the Virgin Mary stands on one side and ST. John the disciple stands on the other side.

.

1. The Royal Door.
2. Icon of Christ.
3. Window.
4. ST. John the Baptist.
5. Icon of the Patorn Saint, or the Icon of the Church.
6. Icon of Martyr, Saint , or any incident from the New or the Old Testament.
7. St. Mary (Theotokos).
8. The Announciation.
9. Icon of Archangel Michael.
10. Icon of St. Mark.
11. The last supper.
12. The Disciples.
13. St. Mary.
14. St. John the Disciple.

THE CANDLES.

Before every icon a candle Is hung. They are known as "Lampadas" , and resemble the light of Christ who shines through His saints.

The exception to this is the icon of the Lord Jesus Christ, for Christ Himself is the "light" who illuminates the entire church.

THE OSTRICH EGGS.

A main feature which distinguishes ancient Coptic and Greek churches is the Ostrich Eggs. They are suspended before the Iconostasis between the icons.

Eggs, generally, held a symbolic meaning in the Early Church as emblematic of hope and resurrection, or the risen spiritual life in Jesus Christ. It is said that when Pontius Pilate asked ST. Mary the Magdalene of how Jesus rose from the dead, she brought an egg and presented him with the question "Tell me how a small chick emerges from this egg when it is born?!

ST. Augustine confirms this symbolism by saying[8], "Let us place our egg that is our hope, under the wings of that hen".

Perhaps this practice encounters for the tradition of exchanging colored eggs, especially red eggs, between the Christians on Easter feasts. It also explains finding marble eggs in early tombs as those in the tomb of ST. Theodora and ST. Balbina and others.

Another factor that counts for using Ostrich eggs in churches comes as a result of the traditional belief that after laying her eggs, the Ostrich must keep stirring at them in order to speed up their hatching. Taking her eyes away will produce opposite results. Likewise, when the Christian walks into the church, he ought to concentrate all his thoughts and attention to the divine worship, leaving behind all earthly worries lest his prayers should be spoilt and lost[9].

CONTENTS.

Mystery of the House of God.

1. From the Paradise to the Church.

The building, A Theological Speech.

First: The Early Paradise.

Second: the Altar.......

Third: Bethel....

Fourth: Tabernacle..

Fifth: The Temple.

Sixth: Church of N. T....

Summary.

1. Church Building & Church Life.
2. Church Building & Church Community.

Church Building in Community Existence Church Building & Church Features.

Church Building & Church Role.

Church Building & Church Builders.

2) Church Building & Liturgical Life.

3) Church Building & Heavenly Life.

4) Church Building & Mystical Life.

1. Church Building in Early Centuries.

Early Worshipping Houses.

The Church & The Temple.

The House - Church.

Consecrated Church Buildings.

Examples of Eastern Church Buildings.

Examples of Western Church Buildings.

Style of Early Church Building.

1. The Temple.
2. The Roman Court Law.
3. The Pagan Temple.
4. The Catacombs.
5. Church Building & Alexandria.

Church Building in Egypt.

1. Coptic Architecture & Hellenistic Culture.
2. Coptic Architecture & Roman Basilica.
3. Coptic Architecture & Byzantine Style.

1. Church Building & Orientation.

Orientation in the Early Church.

The Theology of Orientation.

1. Christ in Our East.
2. Reminds Us of Lost Paradise.
3. Waiting for the Parousia (Advent).
4. Symbol of Rebirth, Hope & Light of Christ.
5. Looking Towards the Cross.

Orientation of Graves.

1. The Shape of Church Building.
2. The Cruciform.
3. The Circular Shape.

Church Building as a Ship.

The Ship in the Gentiles Thought.

Ship Sumbolism in O. T.

Ship of the N. T.

Some Sayings of the Fathers.

Conclusion.

1. The Sanctuary & The Altar.

The Sanctuary.

Heaven of Heavens.

Inside the Sanctuary.

Sanctity of the Sanctuary.

The Inner Altar.

The Altar in the N. & O. T.

Nomenclature.

The Need for Altars.

Altar & Sacrificial Act.

1. Altar of Burnt - Offering.
2. Altar of Incense.
3. Table of Shewbread.
4. Ark of Covenant.

The Altar Material.

1. Wooden Altars.
2. Stone Altars.
3. Metallic Altars.

The Coptic Altar.

General.

Multiple Altars.

Consecration of Altars.

Altar Clothing.

Stripping of Altars.

Washing Altars.

Sanctity of Altars.

The Altar - Board.

Portable Altars.

The Ciborium (Canopy).

The Coptic Ciborium.

The Tribune 200.

The Bishop’s Throne (Synthrone).

Bishop’s Throne & Bishop’s Authority.

Character of Bishop’s Throne.

Bishop’s Throne at Present.

The Niche.

1. The Iconostasis.

Early Iconostasis.

Normculture.

Function of the Iconostasis.

First: Western Interpretation.

Second: Eastern Interpretation.

The Coptic Iconostasis.

The Doors.

The Windows.

Positioning and Order of Icons.

The Candles.

The Ostrich Eggs.

---

[1] . Tertullian: 39: 3.

[2] . Hemas: Shepherd vis. 3: 4: 2.

[3] . Adv. Haer 3: 24: 1.

[4] . ST. Cyril of Alexandria: Thesaurus 34 PG 75: 609.

[5] . ST. Cyril of Alexandria: In Joan 11: 2 PG 74: 452> 3.

[6] . ST. Athanasuis: Ep. ad Serapion 19. PG 26: 576.

[1] Church Building p9,10.

[1] In Exod. hom 9.

[2] De Princi. 1,6,2.

[3] Sermons on N. T. Leesons 7,6.

[4] 21.

[1] Origen, In Exod. Hom 13.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Ibid, hom 9.

[1] J. G. Davies: Early Christian Church, 1965, p 57,58.

[2] Cutis: History of Early Christian Art, 1893, p 11.

[3] ST. Cyril of Jerusalem: Cat. Leet. 16: 4.

[4] Clementine Recognitions 4: 6.

[5] ibid 10: 71.

[6] Hist. Er 1: 29.

[7] J. G. Davies: Origin and Development of Early Christian Church Architect N. Y. 1953, p 12.

[8] Mark 15: 9 - 15, Acts 16: 12 - 17.

[9] Tertul. Apologeticus,21 See: G Baldwin Brown: From Sehola to Cathedral, Edinburgh 1886, p.11.

[10] Davies: Origin 3 Develop. P14.

[11] Hippolyt. , PanicI 1,20. Haus: Handbook of Church History , vol 1, p 286.

[12]

[13] Origen: Oratione 31: 5.

[14]

[15] Eusebius: H. E. 7: 30.

[16] Dactant. De Mortibus Persecutorum, ch 12.

[17] Cutts, pS6.

[18] Tert. Do Fug 3, De Idols 7, De Pudic 4, De Spent 25.

[19] Cutts, p31.

[20] Dampriduis, Vita Alex 49.

[21] Gallin. us, Vita Alex. 49.

[22] Eusebius: H. E, 8: 1.

[23] Lactantius: De Mortibus Perseo. , ch 12.

[1] Clarke C. P. S: Short History of Christian Church, London 1984, P. 40.

[2] Atya A. S.: History of Eastern Christianity, P. 136.

[3] Hamilton J. H: Byzantine Architecture and Decoration, London 1933, P 1 - 80.

[4] Rukwart: Church Building, p. 63.

[5] Atya P. 27.

[6] Davies: Origin & Develop. Of Early Christian Church Architecture, p. 11.

[7] Atya P. 131.

[8] Butler: Ancient Churches of Egypt, Vol 1, Introduction.

[9] Ibid P. 5.

[10] Atya p. 136 - 7.

[11] Tertullion: Ad. Idolt ch. 3.

[1] Apostolic Constitutions 2, 57 (61).

[2] St. Clement of Alexandria: Strom. 7.

[3] Origen: Hom 5 in Number, Ch. 4.

[4] Tertullian. 'Apology 16 ; Ad Nationes 13.

[5] Pocknee: Cross & Crucifix , London 1962, p 36.

[6] Wright W.: Apocr. Acts of the Apostles, vol 2. p 5,32.

[7] القس تادرس يعقوب: القديس كيرلس الأورشليمي، سيرته، مقالاته للموعظين، مقالاته عن الأسوار.

[8] Tert.: Ad Nationes 13.

[9] بستان الرهبان.

[10] Origen; On Prayer 32 ; Hom 5 in Numb , ch 4.Quaeten: Patrology , vol 2 , p 68.Danielou: Origen , N. Y. 1955, p 29.

[11] ST. Basil: De Spirit. Sand. 27.القمص منقريوس عوض الله: منارة الأقداس، شرح طقوس الكنيسة والقداس ص 139.

[12] Danielou: Bible & Liturgy.

[13] ibid.

[14] Connolly R. H.: Didaecalia Apoetolorum, 1929, p 119 - 120.Gibson M.: Horae Semiticae II.The Didaacalia Apotolorum, London 1903.

[15] Lamy T. J.: S. Ephraem Syri Hymni et Sermones II, Malines 1886, p. 407.

[16] Coptic Orthodox Church - Melbourne 1976: The Canonical Hours.

[17] منارة الأقداس للروم 19.

[18] Jungmann: Early Liturgy, p 138, 139.

[19] The Assumption of ST. Mary, Coptic (Schedic) text.

[20] Acts of Paul.Quaeten: Patrology , vol 1, p 133.

[21] Butler: Ancient Churches of Egypt, vol 2, p 10.

[1] Butler: The Ancient Churches of Egypt.

[2] Zvegintzov: Our Mother Church.

[3] Rahner: Greek Myths & Christian Mystery, London 1963, p85 - 6.

[4] Cope: Symbolism in the Bible 8 The. Church, London 1959, p 35.

[5] ibid , p 36.

[6] ST. Augustine: Sermons on the N. T.

[7] ST. Cyprian: Unity of the Church.

[8] ST. Augustine: City of God, book 10, ch 17 (Writings of the Fathers).

[9] Rahner: Greek Myths <S Christian Mystery.

[10] G. Strecher: Das Judenchristentwn in den Pseudo - Klementinen Berlin 1958.

[11] De Aticher 29. Quasten: Patrology vol 2, p 213.

[12] ST. Justin: Apology 1: 55: 3.

[13] TertuI lion: De Baptis. 12: 7.

[14] Pseudo Macarius: Hom. Spirit. 44: 16 PG 34: 781 D.

[15] ST. Clement of Alexandria , Protrepticus 12: 118,4.

[16] ST. Gregory Nas. PG 37: 574A.

[17] ibid 37: 678f.

[18] Apostolic Constitutions 2: 57.

[1] Davies: The Origin <5 Development of Early Christian Church Architecture p. 36.Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, p. 133.

[2] ST. Chrysostom: hen. in Acts 9: 6. PG. 60'48.

[3] PG. 46: 581.

[4] القداس الإلهي: القديس باسيليوس (صلوات سرية قبل التناول).

[5] Origen: against Celsus8: 17,18.

[6] Augustine: Sermon on the Mount 10: 37.

[7] St.. Clement of Alexandria: Miscellanies, book 7.

[8] Durandus: Symbolism of Churches and Church Ornaments, London 1906, p 31, 36.

[9] Tertullian: Exhort. Conetit. , ch 10.

[10] ST. Cyprian: Ep. 64 (65).

[11] ST. Augustine: Serm. 159; 1.

[12] ST. Ambrose: De Virigin. , ch 18.

[13] Tertullian: De Orati. 14 (19).

[14] ST. Chrysostom: horn. 3 in Ep. de Evh.

[15] 1 Cor. 10: 21. Origen: c. Celsus 8: 24.

[16] ST. Ignatius: to Magnesians 7: 2.

[17] ST.. Irenaeus: Haer 4: 18: 6.

[18] Eusebius: H. E 10: 444.

[19] ST. Clem. Alex.: Strom. 7: 31,32. Origen: Celsus 8: 17.

[20] Fr. Malaty: Christ in the Eucharist , p 49 - 61.

[21] Didache: oh. 14..

[22] القمص باخوم المحرقي (نيافة الأنبا غريفوريوس) القيمة الروحية.. في سر القربان جراسيموس مدة: الأنوار في الأسوار بيروت 1788 ص 145.St. Ignatius: Ep. to phil 4.St. Justtin: Ep. To Trypho117.St. Irenaeus: Ad Heraes. 4: 17: 5, 4: 18: 6.St. Cyril of Jerusalem 5: 8.St. Augystine: Ep. 68: 9.

[23] ST. Ignatius: Ep. to Eph. 5: 2, to Trail. 7: 2 , to Phil 4.

[24] 1 clem. 44.

[25] Pseudo - Athansiue: Dispt. Cont. Arian. 17.Tert.: De Exhort. Constit. , ch 10.

[26] ST. Augustine: City of Gad 10: 6,33. ■.Sermon 829 to the Newly - baptised.Sermon 2 - 2 "" ".

[27] Optatus , De Schism. Donatist. 6: 1.

[28] ST. Augustine: Ep. 185,37 ; 195: 1.

[29] ST. Athanasius: Ad Monach.

[30] A. A. King: Rites of Eastern Christian Altar, vol 1, p. 553,4.C. E. Pooknee: The Christian Altar, 1963, p 37.

[31] Council of Epaona, Canon 26.

[32] Assemani, Bibioth. Orient. 3 , p 238.

[33] ST. Ambrose: Ep. 22: 13. PL. 16: 1023.

[34] Origen: in Jerm. Hom. 14: 7. PG. 13: 411.

[35] ST. Cyprian: Ep 10: 4; 37: 2; 76: 7.

[36] Euseb. H. E. 5: 1: 41.

[37] Apost. Const. 4: 17.

[38] Martyr. Polyoarp. ehl8.

[39] ST. Augustine: Sermon 310: 2.

[40] Has lining. p. 339.

[41] Davies: Origin 8 Develop.... p. 209.

[42] Sozomen: H. E. 9: 1.

[43] Paul Silentiary: Deserip. ST. Sophioe, ed. Bona 55: 632.

[44] Hastining , 340.

[45] Davies: Diet, of Liturgy <S worship (Altar).

[46] القس منقريوس عوض الله: منارة الأقداس حـ1 صــ 54.

[47] Butler, Ancient Churches of Egypt, vol 2. p. 2.

[48] القس منقريوس عوض الله: منارة الأقداس حــ1.

[49] ST. Ignatius: Ep. to Phil 4: 1.

[50] S. Clarke: Christian Antiquites in the Nile Valley, 1912 , p Ho.

[51] Danielou: The Bible 8 The Liturgy.

[52] ST. John Chrysostom: In Matt. horn. 50: 4. PG. 58: 509.

[53] Fr. Malaty: Christ in the Eucharist.

[54] Hallett: A Catholic Diet, p 21.

[55] Davies: Diet, of Liturgy & Worship , p. 8.

[56] Halett: A Catholic Diet. , p 403.

[57] Grdo Romanus. 31.

[58] Davies, Diet. Of Lit. & Worship, p. 8.

[58(b)] : Halett: A Catholic Diet.

[59] Diz: The Shape of the Liturgy, oh. 12.

[60] Davies: Diet, of Lit. & Worship , p 6.See Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, p. 40.

[61] p.. 264.

[62] Bishop E.: Liturgica Historica, p 21.

[63] Poaknee: The Christian Altar, p 44.

[64] Renaudot: Lit. Orient, vol. 2 , p 46.

[65] القس منقريوس عوض الله حـ1 صـ59.

[66] J. A. ASSEMAN: De Cathal. Seu. Pat. Chaid. et Nestor. , p 120.

[67] PG 114: 409.

[68] W. H. Freestone: Sacrament reserved , 1917, p 207 - 8.

[69] EP. ad. phes. PG. 62: 29.See 1 Cor. , horn. 36: 5.

[70] Poaknee: The Christian Altar, p 60, 61.

[71] E. Bishop: Liturgy. Hist. , p 22.

[72] Hastinings: Encyclop. of Religion & Ethics , vol 8, p. 462.

[73] Basil Minchin: Outward 8 Visible , 1961, p. 62.

[74] المتحف القبطي حـ1 صـ212.القس منقريوس عوض الله: منارة الأقداس حـ1 صـ45، 46.

[75] Dawes: Early Chwstiab Church , p. 209.

[76] ibid.

[77] Harvard: Dictionary of Catholic Church, 781.Dawes: Ort - gin <S Develop, of Early Church Architecture, p. 94.

[78] Euseb. H. E. 7: 19.

[79] Hook's Church Diet. , 1887, p. 138.

[80] Halett: A Catholic Diet. ,1951 , p! 25.Fr. Malaty: Pope Peter I, p 86.81 Davies: Diet, of Liturg. & Worship , p 123, 124.82 Halett , p. 125.83 Apost. Const. 8: 6.84 Tert.: De Exhort. Chest. 7.Clement. Alex.: Strom 6: 13; 106.Origen: in Math. 16: 22.Didis. Apost. 12.85 Davies: Origin 8 develop p. 96,97.86 Bond F.: Stalls and Tabernacle work , 1910, p 101.87 Hook's Church Diet. , p 138.88 Eusebius H. E. 7: 30.89 Davies: Origin & develop.... p 94.

[1] Leorid Ouspeneky: The meaning of icons, Basle, 1952.

[2] ibid.

[3] Francis Bond: Screens and Galleries {n English Churches, Oxford, 1908.

[4] Dix: The Shape of the Liturgy, p. 14,15.

[5] القمص منقريوس عوض الله: منارة الأقداس في شرح القداس جزء أول.

[6] Fr. Malaty: Christ in the Eucharist, p 440,441.

[7] القمص يوحنا سلامة: اللآلئ النفيسة... ص 430.

[8] ST. Augustine.

[9] Mourad Kamel: Coptic Egypt.Butler: Ancient. Churches of Egypt, vol 2 , p. 78.